Principles of Orchestration, with Musical Examples Drawn from His Own Works

*The Golden Cockerel 156

* " " " 165

* Antar, 1st movement 11

* No.25. Ivan the Terrible, Act III 63

b) Violins divisi in octaves.

First and second violins divided in two parts and progressing in octaves will deprive the melody of resonance, since the number of players is diminished by half, the consequences being specially noticeable in small orchestras.Nevertheless the method can be used occasionally when the strings are doubled by the wood-wind, and when the melody falls in a sufficiently high register.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 166—

Vns I Vns II

]

8

mezzo-forte espressivoPartial doubling of Coupava's song (Sopr.)One flute and one oboe double the melody.

No.26. Snegourotchka 283—Chorus of Flowers—

2 Vns soli Vns I + Fl. I

]

8.

Pianissimo cantabile in two octaves, progressing with the women's chorus (Sopr. I), and given out earlier by the Eng. horn. The flute and all the 1st Violins except two play in the lower octave, the two solo violins, only, in the upper. The solo desk will be sufficiently prominent owing to the general pianissimo

c) Violins and Violas in octaves.

First and second Violins progressing with the Violas in octaves is a common method, especially when the lower octave in the melody happens to go below the open G string on the violins.

1.

Vns (I or II) Violas

]

8.

Example:

Snegourotchka 137, finale of Act I. Quick melody, piano

2.

Vns I + II Violas

]

8 and 3.

Vns I Vns II + Violas

]

8.

These two distributions are not exactly the same. The first should be used to obtain greater brilliance in the upper part, the second to give the lower part a fuller and more cantabile quality.

Examples:

No.27. Sadko, before 181—

Vns I + II Violas

]

8.

Quick animated passage, forte, introducing reiterated notes.

No.28. Snegourotchka 137, finale to Act I—

Vns I Vns II + Violas

]

8.

Cantabile phrase, transmitted to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex.8).

d) Violas and Violoncellos in octaves.

Of special use when the Violins are otherwise employed.

Example:

* Legend of Kitesh 59,

Violas Cellos

]

8,

doubled by bassoons.

e) Violins and Violoncellos in octaves.

Used in very expressive passages where the 'cellos have to play on the A or D strings. This method produces a more resonant tone than the preceding one; instances of it are frequent.

Examples:

No.29. Antar 43—

Vns I + Vns II 'Cellos

]

8.

Cantabile of Eastern origin.

Shéhérazade, 3rd movement H—

Vns I 'Cellos

]

8.

Cantabile mezzo-forte appassionato (cf. Ex.1).

* No.30. Shéhérazade, 3rd movement, before P—

Vns I Vns II + 'Cellos

]

8 and

Vns I + II 'Cellos

]

8.

The first arrangement is rarely found.

Pan Voyevoda 134, nocturne "Moonlight"—

Vns I 'Cellos

]

8.

Cantabile melody given first to 'cellos alone (cf. Ex.7).

The May Night, Act III B, C, D—

Vns I + Vns II 'Cellos

]

8.

A forte melodic phrase.

f) Violoncellos and Double basses in octaves.

The bass is usually constructed in this manner.Examples of it are to be found everywhere.Sometimes the double bass part is simplified in comparison with the 'cello part.

Example:

Snegourotchka 9, Fairy Spring's Aria

g) Violas and Double basses in octaves.

This combination seldom arises and is only used when the 'cellos are otherwise employed.

Example:

No.31. Legend of Kitesh 223

h) Parts progressing in octaves, each part doubled in unison.Melodies situated in the middle orchestral range may be allotted to 1st and 2nd Vns, in octaves with Violas and 'Cellos.This arrangement is constantly found, and produces a beautiful quality of tone, somewhat severe in character.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 58, 60, 65 and 68. The same melody, played twice pianissimo, not doubled, then twice (mezzo-forte and forte), doubled in the wood-wind.

Mlada, Act II, the beginning of the Lithuanian dance. A lively piano theme.

Ivan the Terrible, Act II 28

Examples:

Sadko 207 (cf. Ex.24).

Melody in double octaves.

a)	Vns I	]	8	or	Vns I	]	8
	Vns II Violas	]	8		Vns II 'Cellos	]	8

may be used for full cantabile melodies extremely tense in character, and in forte passages for choice.

Example:

No.32. Antar 65—

Vns I	]	8.
Vns II Violas + 'Cellos	]	8.

b)	Violas	]	8	or	Vns I + II	]	8	or	Vns I + II + Violas	]	8
	'Cellos D. basses	]	8		Violas +'Cellos D. basses	]	8		'Cellos D. basses	]	8

are employed when the low register of each instrument is brought into play, and also to suit phrases of a rough and severe character.

Examples:

Legend of Kitesh 66, opening of the 2nd Act.

No.33. Snegourotchka 215Tumblers' dance.

Doubling in three and four octaves.

The distribution

Vns I Vns II Violas 'Cellos D. basses

] 8 ] 8 ] 8 ] 8

is very seldom found, and as a rule, only when supported by wind instruments.

Examples:

The Legend of Kitesh 150 (allargando).

* Shéhérazade, 4th movement, commencing at the 10th bar.

Vns I Vns II Violas + 'Cellos D. basses

] ] ]

8.

Melody in thirds and sixths.

In confiding a melody in thirds to the strings it is frequently necessary to use the same quality of tone in both parts, but in the case of a melody in sixths different timbres may be employed.In writing thirds doubled in octaves, the first and second violins should be used.In spite of the difference in the quantity of players, the thirds will not sound unequal.The same arrangement may obtain in the viola and 'cello groups, but it is useless in the case of melody in sixths.

Examples:

* No.34. Legend of Kitesh 34—

Vns  I div.) 3 Vns II div.) 3

]

8.

* Legend of Kitesh 39—

Vns I Violas

]

6.

Cf. also Legend of Kitesh 223:

Vns I Vns II	}	3	]	8 (Ex.31).
Vns I Vns II	}	3

Distribution in octaves, thirds, and sixths is usually regulated by the normal register of the respective instruments, so as to avoid any suggestion of mannerism resulting from the disturbance of balance. But such a departure from the recognised order may be permitted in special cases. For instance, in the following example of writing in sixths the upper part is allotted to the 'cellos, the lower part to the violins on the G string; this arrangement produces a quality of tone distinctly original in character.

Example:

No.35. Spanish Capriccio D—

'Cellos Vns I + II

]

6.

Melody in the wood-wind.

* The choice of instruments for characteristic and expressive melody is based on their distinctive qualities, discussed minutely in the foregoing chapterTo a large extent the question is left to the orchestrator's own personal taste.Only the best methods of using the wood-wind in unison or octaves, and distributing a melody in thirds, sixths and mixed intervals, from the standpoint of resonance and tone quality will be indicated in this section of the work.Examples of the use of solo wood-wind are to be found in any score; the following are typical instances:

Examples of solo wood-wind:

1. Piccolo: Serbian Fantasia C; No.36. Tsar Saltan 216; Snegourotchka 54

2. Flute: Antar 4; Servilia 80; Snegourotchka 79, 183; A Fairy Tale L; The Christmas Night 163; No.37. Shéhérazade, 4th movement, before A (Fl.à 2 in the low register).

Flute (double tonguing): Pan Voyevoda 72; Shéhérazade, 4th movement, after V; No.38. Ivan the Terrible, Act III, after 10

3. Bass flute: No.39. Legend of Kitesh 44

4. Oboe: No.40. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement A; The May Night, Act III Kk; No.41. Snegourotchka 50; Snegourotchka 112, 239; The Tsar's Bride 108 (cf. Ex.284), No.42 and 43. The Golden Cockerel 57 and 97

5. Eng.horn: Snegourotchka 97, 283 (cf. Ex.26); No.44. Spanish Capriccio E; No.45. The Golden Cockerel 61

6. Small Clarinet: No.46. Mlada, Act II 33; Mlada, Act III 37

7. Clarinet: Serbian Fantasia G; Spanish Capriccio A; Snegourotchka 90, 99, 224, 227, 231 (cf. Ex.8); The May Night, Act I, before X; Shéhérazade, 3rd movement D; A Fairy Tale M; The Tsar's Bride 50, 203; The Golden Cockerel 97 (lowest register, cf. Ex.43).

8. Bass clarinet: No.47 and 48. Snegourotchka 243 and 246-247

9. Bassoon: Antar 59; No.49. Vera Scheloga 36; Shéhérazade, 2nd movement, beginning (cf. Ex.40); No.50. The Golden Cockerel 249; No.51. Mlada, Act III, after 29; cf. also Ex.78

10. Double bassoon: Legend of Kitesh, before 84, 289; cf. also Ex.10 (D. bassoon + D. bass solo).

The normal order of wood-wind instruments and that which produces the most natural resonance is the following: Flutes, Oboes, Clarinets, Bassoons (the order used in orchestral full scores). Departure from this natural order, e.g. placing bassoons above clarinets and oboes, or flutes below oboes and clarinets, and especially below the bassoons, creates a far-fetched, unnatural tone, useful, however, in certain cases to attain certain special effects. I do not advise the student to make too free a use of this proceeding.

Combination in unison.

The combination of two different wood-wind instruments in unison yields the following tone qualities:

a) Flute + Oboe. A quality fuller than that of the flute, sweeter than that of the oboe. Played softly, the flute will predominate in the low, the oboe in the upper register. Example: No.52. Snegourotchka 113

b) Flute + Clarinet. A quality fuller than that of the flute, duller than that of the clarinet. The flute will predominate in the lower, the clarinet in the higher register. Examples: No.53. Legend of Kitesh 330; also 339 and 342

c) Oboe + Clarinet. A fuller quality than that of either instrument heard separately. The dark, nasal tone of the oboe will prevail in the low register, the bright, "chest" quality of the clarinet in the high compass. Examples: Snegourotchka 19; No.54. Snegourotchka 115. Cf. also Legend of Kitesh 68, 70, 84—2 Ob. + 3 Cl. (Ex.199-201).

d) Flute + Oboe + Clarinet. Very full in quality. The flute predominates in the low register, the oboe in the middle, and the clarinet in the high compass. Examples: Mlada, Act I 1; * Sadko 58 (2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Small Cl.) .

e) Bassoon + Clarinet. Very full quality. The gloomy character of the clarinet prevails in the lower register, the sickly quality of the bassoon in the higher. Example: Mlada, Act II, after 49

f) Bassoon + Oboe, and

g) Bassoon + Flute.

The combinations f and g, as well as Bassoon + Clarinet + Oboe, and Bassoon + Clarinet + Flute are very seldom found except in certain orchestral tutti, where they produce increased resonance without creating a fresh atmosphere.But in such combinations, the range of which is practically restricted to the limits of the third octave, the low notes of the flute will predominate in the lower third of this register, and the high notes of the bassoon in the middle third.The clarinet, weak in the middle compass will not stand out prominently in this particular combination.

h) Bassoon + Clarinet + Oboe + Flute. This combination is equally rare. The colour is rich, and difficult to define in words. The tone of each instrument will be separated from the others more or less in the manner detailed above. Examples: Russian Easter Fête, the beginning; No.55. Snegourotchka 301; The May Night, Act III Qqq

The process of combining two or more qualities of tone in unison, while endowing the music with greater resonance, sweetness and power, possesses the disadvantage of restricting the variety of colour and expression.Individual timbres lose their characteristics when associated with others.Hence such combinations should be handled with extreme care.Phrases or melodies demanding diversity of expression alone should be entrusted to solo instruments of simple timbres.The same applies to the coupling of two instruments of the same kind, such as 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons.The quality of tone will lose nothing of its individuality, and will gain in power, but its capacity for expression will be diminished accordingly.An instrument enjoys greater independence and freedom when used as a solo than when it is doubled. The use of doubling and mixed timbres is naturally more frequent in loud passages than in soft ones, also where expression and colour is broad rather than individual or intimate in character.

Combination in octaves.

When the melody is entrusted to two wood-wind instruments in octaves, the usual arrangement producing natural resonance is:

8

[

Fl. Ob.

Fl. Cl.

Fl. Fag.

Ob. Cl.

Ob. Fag.

Cl. Fag.

]

8

The combination of flute and bassoon in octaves is rare on account of the widely separated registers of the two instruments. Deviation from the natural order, such as placing the bassoon above the clarinet or oboe, the clarinet above the oboe or flute etc., creates an unnatural resonance occasioned by the confusion of registers, the instrument of lower compass playing in its high register and vice versaThe lack of proper relationship between the different tone qualities then becomes apparent.

Examples:

No.56. Spanish Capriccio O—

Fl. Ob.

]

8.

No.57. Snegourotchka 254—

Fl. Eng. horn

]

8.

* No.58. Shéhérazade, 3rd movement E—

Fl. Cl.

]

8.

Sadko 195—

Fl. Eng. horn

]

8.

Pan Voyevoda 132—

Fl. Cl.

]

8.

Tsar Saltan 39—

Cl. Fag.

]

8.

No.59. Vera Scheloga 30—

Cl. Fag.

]

8,

likewise any number of examples in the scores of various composers.

The use of two instruments of the same colour in octaves, e.g.2 flutes, 2 clarinets or 2 bassoons etc., if not exactly to be avoided is certainly not to be recommended, as the instruments, playing in different registers will not correspond one with the other. Nevertheless this method may be safely employed when stringed instruments, arco or pizzicato double the two members of the wood-wind, and especially in the middle compass. The process is most satisfactory for repeated notes or sustained passages.

Examples:

The May Night, Act I T—

Cl.I Cl. II

]

8.

* Sadko, after 159—

Ob.I Ob. II

]

3, doubled by pizz. strings.

* Servilia, after 21—

Fag.I Fag. II

]

8 + pizz. strings.

Instruments of the same branch playing in octaves, e.g.

8

[

Fag. C-Fag.

Cl. Cl. basso

Ob. Eng. horn

Small cl. Clar.

Flute Alto Fl.

Picc. Fl.

]

8

always produce a good effect.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 5—

Picc. Fl.

]

8 (cf. Ex.15).

The Tsar's Bride 133—

Picc. Fl.

]

8.

Tsar Saltan 216—

Picc. Fl.

]

8 (cf. Ex.36).

Sadko, after 59

Small cl. Cl.

]

8.

Legend of Kitesh 240—

Fag. C-Fag.

]

8 (cf. Ex.21).

No 60. Mlada, Act III, before 44—

Ob. Eng. horn

]

8.

As in the strings, so in the wood-wind it is advisable to double in octaves any melody situated in the extremely high or low compass; an octave lower in the first case, an octave higher in the second.Thus the piccolo will be doubled by the flute, oboe or clarinet an octave lower; the double bassoon will be doubled by bassoon, clarinet or bass clarinet an octave higher.

8

[

Picc. Fl.

Picc. Ob.

Picc. Cl.

]

8

8

[

Fag. C-Fag.

Bass cl. Fag.

Cl. Fag.

Cl. Bass cl.

Fag. Fag.

Fag. Bass cl.

]

8

Examples:

* Tsar Saltan 39—

Picc. Ob.

]

8.

* No.61. Mlada, Act II, Lithuanian dance 32—

Picc. Small cl.

]

8.

Sadko 150—

Picc. Small cl.

]

8.

* Mixed qualities of tone may be employed in doubling in octaves, the above remarks still holding good.

Examples:

Pan Voyevoda 134—

Cl. + Ob. Cl. + Eng. horn

]

8 (cf. Ex.7).

No.62. Servilia 168—

2 Fl. + Ob. 2 Cl. + Eng. horn

]

8.

No.63. The Tsar's Bride 120—

3 Fl. + Ob. 2 Cl. + Fag. + Eng. horn

]

8.

Mlada, Act III 41—

Fl. + Bass fl. Cl. + Bass cl.

]

8.

Doubling in two, three and four octaves.

In such cases the student should follow the above-mentioned rules, and should take care not to infringe the natural order:

In 3 octaves:

Fl. Ob. Cl.

Ob. Cl. Fag.

Fl. Cl. Fag.

Fl. Ob. Fag.

] 8 ] 8.

In 4 octaves:

Fl. Ob. Cl. Fag.

] 8 ] 8 ] 8.

Mixed timbres may also be employed.

Examples:

No.64. Spanish Capriccio P—melody in 4 octaves:

Picc. 2 Fl. 2 Ob. + Cl. Fag.

] 8 ] 8 ] 8.

The Tsar's Bride 141—melody in 3 octaves.

* Legend of Kitesh 212—

2 Cl. Bass cl. D. bassoon

] 8 ] 8.

* No.65. Antar, (1st version) 3rd movement, the beginning—

Picc. + 2 Fl. 2 Ob. + 2 Cl. 2 Fag.

] 8 ] 8;

also C, melody in 4 octaves (piccolo in the upper octaves).

* Mlada, Act III, after 42—

Fl. Ob. Eng. horn

] 8 ] 8.

No.66. Shéhérazade, 3rd movement G—

Picc. Cl. I Cl. II

] 8 ] 8.

Examples of melody doubled in five octaves are extremely rare; in such cases the strings participate in the process.

Melody in thirds and sixths.

Melodic progression in thirds and sixths demands either two instruments of the same colour (2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.), or instruments of different colours in the normal order of register:

Fl. Ob.

Fl. Cl.

Ob. Cl.

Cl. Fag.

Ob. Fag.

]

3 (6).

If this order is inverted, e.g.

Ob. Fl.

Cl. Fl.

Fag. Cl.

]

3 (6),

a strained and forced resonance is created.For progressions in thirds, the best method, from the standpoint of equality in tone is to use instruments of the same kind in pairs; for progressions in sixths instruments of different kinds are more suitable, but both courses are good and useful.They may also be employed for progressions in thirds and sixths, or thirds, fifths and sixths mixed, as for example:

[Listen]

Examples:

Legend of Kitesh 24—different wind instruments in turn.

The May Night, Act III G—

Cl. Cl.

]

3.

Sadko 279-280—

Fl. Fl.

]

3 (6).

No.67. Spanish Capriccio, before V—various wood-wind in thirds and sixths.

Servilia 228—

Fl. Fl.

]

3

and

Cl. Cl.

]

3.

The Golden Cockerel 232—

2 Fl. 2 Ob.

]

6.

* Sadko 43—All wood-wind in turn, simple timbres.

When the doubled parts progress in thirds or sixths, the following method is advisable:

Fl. + Ob. Fl. + Ob.	]	3 (6)	or	Fl. + Cl. Fl. + Cl.	]	3 (6) etc., as well as:
Fl. + Ob. Fl. + Cl.	]	3 (6)	or	Ob. + Fl. Fl. + Cl.	]	3 (6) etc.

In the case of tripling the following arrangement may be adopted:

Fl. + Ob. + Cl. Fl. + Ob. + Cl.

]

3 (6)

or

Ob. + 2 Fl. Ob. + 2 Cl.

]

3 (6) etc.

Examples:

* No.68. The Christmas Night 187—

Ob. + Cl. Ob. + Cl.

]

3.

* Legend of Kitesh 202-203 different mixed timbres.

Thirds and sixths together.

[Listen]

Apart from the obvious distribution:

Fl. Ob. Cl.

or

Ob. Cl. Fag. ,

there are certain complicated methods which involve doubling:

Upper	part.	Ob. + Fl.
Middle	"	Fl. + Cl.
Lower	"	Ob. + Cl.

The following is a complex instance somewhat vague in character:

No.69. Legend of Kitesh 35—

Ob. Ob. + Cl. Cl.

and

Fl. Fl. + Ob. Ob.

Melody in the brass.

The natural scale, the only one which brass instruments had at their disposal prior to the invention of valves was:

[Listen]

giving, in two part harmony:

[Listen]

With the help of rhythm, these component parts have given rise to a whole series of themes and phrases named fanfares, trumpet calls or flourishes, best adapted to the character of brass instruments.

In modern music, thanks to the introduction of valves, this scale is now possible in all keys for every chromatic brass instrument, without it being necessary to change the key, and the addition of a few notes foreign to the natural scale has enriched the possibilities of these flourishes and fanfares, and endowed them with greater variety of expression.

These phrases, either as solos, or in two or three parts, fall specially to the lot of the trumpets and horns, but they may also be given to the trombones.The full, clear, ringing notes of the middle and upper register of horns and trumpets are best suited to figures of this description.

Examples:

Servilia 20—Trumpets.

The Christmas Night 182—Horn, Trumpets.

Vera Scheloga, beginning of Overture, and after 45—Horn, Trumpets.

Ivan the Terrible, Act III 3—Cornet.

Snegourotchka 155—Trumpets.

No.70. Legend of Kitesh 65 and elsewhere. —3 Trumpets, 4 Horns.

Pan Voyevoda 191—2 Trombones, Trumpet.

* The Golden Cockerel 20—2 Horns and

Trumpets Horns

]

8 (cf.further on).

After fanfare figures, those melodies best suited to the brass quality are those of an unmodulated diatonic character, rousing and triumphant in the major key, dark and gloomy in the minor.

Examples:

No.71. Sadko 342—Trumpet.

Sadko, before 181—Trombones (cf. Ex.27).

No.72. Snegourotchka 71—Trumpet.

Russian Easter Fête M—Trombone.

Spanish Capriccio E—Alternative use in the horn of open and stopped notes (cf. Ex.44).

Ivan the Terrible, Act II, before 17—Bass trumpet, and 3 Horns a little further on.

Mlada, Act II 33—Bass trumpet (cf. Ex.46).

The genial and poetic tone of the horn in piano passages affords greater scope in the choice of melodies and phrases that may be entrusted to this instrument.

Examples:

The May Night, Overture 13

The Christmas Night 1

Snegourotchka 86

Pan Voyevoda 37

No.73. Antar 40

Melodies involving chromatic or enharmonic writing are much less suitable to the character of brass instruments.Nevertheless such melodies may sometimes be allotted to the brass, as in the music of Wagner, and the modern Italian realists, who, however, carry the proceeding to extremes.Vigourous phrases in the form of a fanfare, although introducing chromatic notes sound singularly beautiful on the brass.

Example:

No.74. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement D

As a general rule, brass instruments lack the capacity to express passion or geniality.Phrases charged with these sentiments become sickly and insipid when confided to the brass.Energetic power, free or restrained, simplicity and eloquence constitute the valuable qualities of this group.

Brass in unison, in octaves, thirds and sixths.

As, from its very nature, the brass is not called upon to realise a wide range of expression, kindred instruments of one group may be employed solo, as well as in unison.The combination of 3 trombones or 4 horns in unison is frequently met with, and produces extreme power and resonance of tone.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 5—4 Horns (cf. Ex.15).

Snegourotchka 199—4 Horns and 2 Trumpets.

Sadko 175—1, 2, 3 Trumpets.

No.75. Sadko 305[13]—3 Trombones.

No.76. The May Night, beginning of Act III—1, 2, 3, 4 Horns.

Legend of Kitesh, end of Act I—4 Horns (cf. Ex.70).

No.77. Shéhérazade, 4th movement p. 204—3 Trombones.

Mlada; Lithuanian dance—6 Horns (cf. Ex.61).

Owing to the resonant power of the entire group, the equality and even gradation of tone between the dark colour of the deep compass and the bright quality of the upper register, the use of brass instruments of the same kind in octaves, thirds or sixths invariably leads to satisfactory results.For the same reason the employment of brass instruments of different kinds, arranged according to normal order of register:

Trumpet 2 Horns

Trumpet Trombone

Trombone Tuba

2 Trombones Trombone + Tuba

2 Trumpets 2 Trombones

2 Horns Tuba

is likewise successful whether the instruments are doubled or not.Another possible method, though not so reliable, is to combine horns (above) with trombones, exclusively in octaves:

2 Horns 1 Trombone

]

8

or

4 Horns 2 Trombones

]

8.

Examples:

Sadko, before 120—

Trumpet Trumpet

]

8.

Sadko 5—

2 Trumpets 4 Horns

]

8.

Snegourotchka 222—

2 Trombones Trombone + Tuba

]

8.

Ivan the Terrible, Act III 10

1 Trombone + Trumpet 2 Trombones

]

8 (cf. Ex.38).

The Golden Cockerel 125—

Trumpet Trombone

]

8.

Cf. also Snegourotchka 325-326—

Trombone Trombone

]

8 (Ex.95).

Melody in different groups of instruments combined together.

A.Combination of wind and brass in unison.

The combination of a wood-wind and brass instrument produces a complex resonance in which the tone of the brass predominates. This resonance is naturally more powerful than that of each instrument taken separately, but slightly sweeter than the brass instrument alone. The tone of the wood-wind blends with that of the brass, softens and rarefies it, as in the process of combining two wood-wind instruments of different colour. Instances of such doubling are fairly numerous, especially in forte passages. The trumpet is the instrument most frequently doubled: Trumpet + Cl. , Trumpet + Ob. , Trumpet + Fl. , as well as Trumpet + Cl. + Ob. + Fl. ; the horn, less often: Horn + Cl. , Horn + Fag. Trombones and Tuba may also be doubled: Trombone + Fag. , Tuba + Fag. Combining the Eng. horn, bass clarinet and double bassoon with the brass, in corresponding registers, presents the same characteristics.

Examples:

Legend of Kitesh 56—Trombone + Eng. horn.

* Mlada, Act III, before 34—3 Trombones + Bass cl.

As a rule, the addition of a wind to a brass instrument yields a finer legato effect than when the latter instrument plays alone.

B.Combination of wind and brass in octaves.

Doubling the horns in octaves by clarinets, oboes or flutes often replaces the combination

1 Trumpet 1 Horn (or 2 Horns)

]

8.

This is done when it is a question of introducing a rich tone into the upper octave which the trumpet is not capable of imparting. If a single horn is used, the upper part is allotted to 2 clarinets, 2 oboes, or 2 flutes. But if there are two horns playing the lower octave in unison, three or four wind instruments will be necessary above, especially in forte passages:

8

[

2 Ob.or 2 Cl.or 2 Fl. 1 Horn

as well as

2 Ob. + 1 Cl. 1 Horn

]

8;

2 Fl. + 2 Cl. 2 Horns

]

8.

To double a trumpet in the upper octave three or four wind instruments are required, but in the top register two flutes will suffice.

[Listen]

[Listen]

Wood-wind instruments should not be used to double a trombone in the octave above; trumpets are more suitable.

Examples of doubling in octaves:

* Snegourotchka 71—

Ob. + Cl. Horn

]

8.

* Legend of Tsar Saltan, before 180—

Ob. + Cl. Ob. + Cl.	]	6	]	8.
Horn Horn	]	6

* Mention should also be made of mixed timbres (wood and brass) in progression in octaves.

Examples:

Mlada, Act III, beginning of Scene III—

Trombone + Bass cl. Tuba + C-fag.

]

8.

No.78. Mlada, Act III after 25—

2 Cl. + 2 Horns + Trombone Bass cl. + 2 Horns + Trombone

]

8 (low register).

No.79. Mlada, Act III, before 35—general unison.

When it is desired to distribute the melody over three or four octaves, it is difficult to achieve perfect balance of tone.

Examples:

* Shéhérazade, 4th movement, 15th bar after W—

Picc. 2 Fl. + 2 Ob. 2 Trumpets

] 8 ] 8.

* Legend of Tsar Saltan 228—

Picc. 2 Fl. + 2 Ob. Trumpet + Eng. horn

] 8 ] 8.

C.Combination of strings and wind.

In commencing this section of the work I consider it necessary to lay down the following fundamental rules which apply equally to melody, harmony, counterpoint and polyphonic writing.

All combinations of strings and wood-wind are good; a wind instrument progressing in unison with a stringed instrument increases the resonance of the latter and amplifies its tone, while the quality of the strings softens that of the wood-wind.In such combinations the strings will predominate provided that the two instruments are of equal power, e.g.when violins are coupled with an oboe, a bassoon with the 'cellos.If several wind instruments play in unison with one group of strings, the latter will be overpowered.As a rule all combinations refine the characteristics of each instrument taken separately, the wood-wind losing more than the strings.

Doubling in unison.

The best and most natural combinations are between instruments whose registers correspond the nearest:

Vns + Fl. (Bass fl. , picc.) , Vns + Ob. , Vns + Cl. (small Cl.) ;

Violas + Ob. (Eng. horn), Violas + Cl. , Violas + Fag.

'Cellos + Cl. (Bass cl.) , 'Cellos + Fag. ;

D. basses + Bass cl. , D. basses + Fag. ; D. basses + C-fag.

The object of these combinations is: a) to obtain a new timbre of definite colour; b) to strengthen the resonance of the strings; c) to soften the quality of the wood-wind.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 5—'Cellos + Violas + Eng. horn (cf. Ex.15).

" 28—Violas + Ob. + Eng. horn.

" 116—Vns I + II + Ob. + Cl.

" 288—Vns I + II + 'Cellos + Eng. horn (cf. Ex.17).

No.80. The May Night, Act III Bb—Violas + Cl.

No.81. Sadko 311—Vns + Ob.

No.82. " 77—Violas + Eng. horn.

No.83. " 123—Violas + Eng. horn.

Servilia 59—Vns G string + Fl.

Tsar Saltan 30—Vns I + II + 2 Cl.

No.84. Tsar Saltan 30, 10th bar. —'Cellos + Violas + 3 Cl. + Fag.

Tsar Saltan 156-159—Vns detached + Fl. legato

The Tsar's Bride 10 Violas + 'Cellos + Fag.

Antar, 4th movement 63—'Cellos + 2 Fag.

Shéhérazade, 3rd movement H—Violas + Ob. + Eng. horn.

Parts doubled in octaves.

Examples of strings in octaves doubled by wood-wind also in octaves are numerous, and do not require special description; they are used according to the rules already laid down.The following are examples of melody distributed over 1, 2, 3 and 4 octaves:

Examples:

No.85. Ivan the Terrible, beginning of Overture—

Vns I + II + 2 Cl. Violas + 'Cellos + 2 Fag.

]

8.

No.86. Sadko 3—

'Cellos + Bass cl. D. basses + C-fag.

]

8.

Sadko 166—

'Cellos + Fag. D. basses + C-fag.

]

8.

" 235—

Violas + 2 Cl. 'Cellos + D. basses + 2 Fag.

]

8.

The Tsar's Bride 14—

'Cellos + Fag. D. basses + Fag.

]

8.

" " " 81—

Vns I Vns II

div.

+ Fl. + Ob.

]

8.

" " " 166—

Vns I + Fl. Vns II + Ob.

]

8 (cf. Ex.22).

In three and four octaves:

Servilia 93—

Vns + 3 Fl. Violas + 2 Ob. 'Cellos + 2 Fag.

] 8 ] 8.

No.87. Kashtcheï 105—

Vns I + Picc. Vns II + Fl. + Ob. Violas + 'Cellos + 2 Cl. + Eng. horn + Fag.

] 8 ] 8.

Shéhérazade, 3rd movement M—

Vns I + Fl. Vns II + Ob. 'Cellos + Engl. horn

] 8 ] 8.

Examples of melody in thirds and sixths:

Servilia 44—

Fl. + Ob. + Cl. + Vns Fl. + Ob. + Cl. + Vns

div.

]

3.

No.88. Servilia 111—Strings and wood-wind in thirds.

No.89. " 125—same combination, in thirds and sixths.

Kashtcheï 90—The same.

It is necessary to pay more attention to cases where, of the two parts in octaves, only one is doubled.When this method is applied to a melody in the soprano register it is better to allow the wood-wind to progress in octaves, the lower part only being doubled by one of the string groups;

Picc. Fl. + Vns

]

8.

Fl. Ob. (Cl.) + Vns

]

8.

Examples:

Tsar Saltan 102—

2 Fl. + Picc. Vns I + II + Ob.

]

8 (cf. Ex.133).

* No.90. Shéhérazade, 4th movement U—

2 Cl. 'Cellos + 2 Horns

]

8.

In the case of a melody in the low register demanding a sweet soft tone, the violoncellos and double basses should be made to progress in octaves, the former doubled by a bassoon, the latter not doubled at all:

'Cellos + Fag. D. basses

]

8.

Sometimes a composer is obliged to use this method on account of the very low register of the double bass, especially if a double bassoon is not included in his orchestral scheme.[14]

Example:

No.91. Tsar Saltan 92—

Violas + Fag. 'Cellos + Fag. D. basses

] 8 ] 8.

D.Combination of strings and brass.

Owing to the dissimilarity between the quality of string and brass tone, the combination of these two groups in unison can never yield such a perfect blend as that produced by the union of strings and wood-wind. When a brass and a stringed instrument progress in unison, each can be heard separately, but the instruments in each group which can be combined with the greatest amount of success are those whose respective registers correspond the most nearly; Violin + Trumpet; Viola + Horn;

'Cellos D. basses

+

Trombones Tuba

(for heavy massive effects).

The combination of horns and 'cellos, frequently employed, produces a beautifully blended, soft quality of tone.

Examples:

Tsar Saltan 29—Vns I + II + Horn.

* No.92. The Golden Cockerel 98—Violas con sord. + Horn.

E.Combination of the three groups.

The combination of members of the three groups in unison is more common, the presence of the wood-wind imparting a fuller and more evenly blended tone.The question as to which group will predominate in timbre depends upon the number of instruments employed.The most natural combinations, and those most generally in use are:

Vns + Ob. (Fr. , Cl.) + Trumpet;
Violas (or 'Cellos) + Cl. (Eng. horn) + Horn;
'Cellos D. basses	+ 2 Fag. + 3 Trombones + Tuba.

Such groupings are used for preference in loud passages or for a heavy piano effect.

Examples:

No. 93-94. Snegourotchka 218 and 219—Vns I + II + Cl. + Horn and Vns I + II + Cl. + Trumpet.

Servilia 168—

Violas + Trombones 'Cellos + Trombone + Bass Cl. D. basses + Tuba + Fag.

] 8 ] 8

(cf. Ex.62).

No.95. Snegourotchka 325—

'Cellos + Violas + Fag. + Trombone D. basses + Fag. + Tuba

]

8.

Pan Voyevoda 224—Vns + Fag. + Horn + Vn. + Cl. + Trumpet. (Stopped notes in the brass.)

* Mlada, Act III, after 23—Violas + 2 Cl. + Bass trumpet.

* No.96. Ivan the Terrible, Act III, before 66—

Bass Cl. + Horn D. basses + C-fag. + Tuba

]

8.

* Ivan the Terrible, Overture, 4th bar after 9—Violas + 'Cellos + Eng. horn + 2 Cl. + Bass Cl. + 2 Fag. + 4 Horns. (The melody simplified in the horns.)

---

Chapter III.

HARMONY.

---

General observations.

The art of orchestration demands a beautiful and well-balanced distribution of chords forming the harmonic texture.Moreover, transparence, accuracy and purity in the movement of each part are essential conditions if satisfactory resonance is to be obtained.No perfection in resonance can accrue from faulty progression of parts.

The composer should picture to himself the exact harmonic formation of the piece he intends to orchestrate.If, in his rough sketch, there exist any uncertainly as to the number or movement of harmonic parts, he is advised to settle this at once.It is likewise essential for him to form a clear idea as to the construction and musical elements of the piece, and to realise the exact nature and limitations of the themes, phrases and ideas he is going to employ.Every transition from one order of harmonic writing to another, from four-part harmony to three, or from five-part harmony to unison etc., must coincide with the introduction of a new idea, a fresh theme or phrase; otherwise the orchestrator will encounter many unforeseen and insurmountable difficulties.For example, if, during a passage written in four parts a chord in five-part harmony is introduced, a fresh instrument must needs be added to play this particular fifth part, and this addition may easily damage the resonance of the chord in question, and render the resolution of a discord or the correct progression of parts impossible.

Number of harmonic parts—Duplication.

In the very large majority of cases harmony is written in four parts; this applies not only to single chords or a succession of them, but also to the formation of the harmonic basis.Harmony which at first sight appears to comprise 5, 6, 7 and 8 parts, is usually only four part harmony with extra parts added.These additions are nothing more than the duplication in the adjacent upper octave of one or more of the three upper parts forming the original harmony, the bass being doubled in the lower octave only.The following diagrams will explain my meaning:

A.Close part-writing.

[Listen]

B.Widely-divided part-writing.

[Listen]

On account of the distance between the bass and the three other parts, only partial duplication is possible.

Good:
	[Listen]

Consecutive octaves between the upper parts are not permissible:

Bad:
	[Listen]

Consecutive fifths resulting from the duplication of the three upper parts moving in chords of sixths are of no importance:

Good:
	[Listen]

The bass of an inversion of the dominant chord should never be doubled in any of the upper parts:

Good:		Bad:
	[Listen]		[Listen]

This applies also to other chords of the seventh and diminished seventh:

Bad:		Good:
	[Listen]		[Listen]

The rules of harmony concerning sustained and pedal passages apply with equal force to orchestral writing. As regards passing and auxiliary notes, échappées, considerable licence is permitted in rapid passages of different texture:

One texture: A different one:
	[Listen]

One texture: A different one:
	[Listen]

A certain figure and its essentials, in simplified form, may proceed concurrently, as in the following example:

One texture: A different one: A third:
	[Listen]

Upper and inner pedal notes are more effective on the orchestra than in pianoforte or chamber music, owing to the greater variety of tone colour:

[Listen]

In Vol.II of the present work many examples of the above methods will be found.

Distribution of notes in chords.

The normal order of sounds or the natural harmonic scale:

[Listen]

may serve as a guide to the orchestral arrangement of chords.It will be seen that the widely-spaced intervals lie in the lower part of the scale, gradually becoming closer as the upper register is approached:

[Listen]

The bass should rarely lie at a greater distance than an octave from the part directly above it (tenor harmony).It is necessary to make sure that the harmonic notes are not lacking in the upper parts:

To be avoided:
	[Listen]

The use of sixths in the upper parts, and the practice of doubling the upper note in octaves are sometimes effective methods:

[Listen]	[Listen]

When correct progression increases the distance between the top and bottom notes of the upper parts, this does not matter:

Good:
	[Listen]

But it would be distinctly bad to fill in the second chord thus:

Not good:
	[Listen]

Hence it follows that the distribution of intermediate parts is a question of the greatest importance. Nothing is worse than writing chords, the upper and lower parts of which are separated by wide, empty intervals, especially in forte passages; in piano passages such distribution may be possible. Progression in contrary motion, the upper and lower parts diverging by degrees gives rise to the gradual addition of extra parts occupying the middle register:

Schematic Example:
	[Listen]

When the voices converge, the middle parts are eliminated one by one:

Schematic Example:
	[Listen]

String harmony.

It is an incontrovertible rule that the resonance of different harmonic parts must be equally balanced, but this balance will be less noticeable in short sharp chords than in those which are connected and sustained. Both these cases will be studied separately. In the first case, in order to increase the number of harmonic parts, each instrument in the string group may be provided with double notes or chords of three and four notes. In the second case, the resources are limited to double notes unis, or division of parts.

A. Short chords. Chords of three or four notes can only be executed rapidly on the strings.

Short chords, arco, only sound well when played forte (sf), and when they can be supported by wind instruments.In the execution of double notes and chords of three and four notes on the strings, balance, perfect distribution of tone, and correct progression of parts are of minor importance.What must be considered before everything is the resonance of the chords themselves, and the degree of ease with which they can be played.Those comprising notes on the gut strings are the most powerful.Chords played on several strings are usually assigned to 1st and 2nd violins and violas, the different notes being divided between them according to ease in execution and the demands of resonance. On account of its low register the 'cello is rarely called upon to play chords on three or four strings, and is usually allotted the lowest note of the chord in company with the double bass. Chords on the latter instrument are even more uncommon, but it may supply the octave on an uncovered string.

Examples:

No.97. Snegourotchka 171; cf. also before 140 and before 200

* Spanish Capriccio, before V (cf. Ex.67).

Shéhérazade, 2nd movement P (cf. Ex.19.)

* No.98. Tsar Saltan 135; cf. also 141 and before 182

Isolated chords may be added to a melodic figure in the upper part, accentuating, sforzando, certain rhythmical moments.

Example:

No.99. Snegourotchka, before 126; cf. also 326

B. Sustained and tremolando chords. Chords sustained for a shorter or longer period of time, or tremolando passages, often used as a substitute, demand perfect balance of tone. Taking for granted that the different members of the string group are equal in power, the parts being written according to the usual order of register, (cf. Chap.I), it is patent that a passage in close four-part harmony, with the bass in octaves will also be uniformly resonant.When it is necessary to introduce notes to fill up the empty middle register, the upper parts being farther distant from the bass, doubled notes on the violins or violas should be used, or on both instruments together.The method of dividing strings, which is sometimes adopted, should be avoided in such cases, as certain parts of the chord will be divided and others will not; but, on the other hand, if a passage in six and seven-part harmony be written entirely for strings divided in the same manner, the balance of tone will be completely satisfactory, e.g.,

div.	{	Vns I Vns I
div.	{	Vns II Vns II
div.	{	Violas I Violas II

If the harmony in the three upper parts, thus strengthened, is written for divided strings, the 'cellos and basses, playing non divisi will prove a trifle heavy; their tone must therefore be eased, either by marking the parts down or reducing the number of players.

In the case of sustained chords or forte tremolando on two strings, the progression of parts is not always according to rule, the intervals chosen being those which are the easiest to play.

Examples:

No.100. The Christmas Night 161—Full divisi

No.101. " " " 210—

Violas div. 'Cellos div.

}

4 part harmony.

No.102. Snegourotchka 187-188—Four-part harmony, Vns I, Vns II, Violas and Violoncellos.

" 243—4 Solo 'cellos divisi

Shéhérazade, 2nd movement, beginning. —4 D. bass soli div. (cf. Ex.40).

The Tsar's Bride 179—Chords on all strings (cf. Ex.243).

No.103. Legend of Kitesh 8—Harmonic basis in the strings.

" " " 240—(Cf. Ex.21).

" " " 283—Harmonic basis in the strings (cf. Ex.2).

No.104. The Golden Cockerel 4—Basis in the strings.

" " " 125—Undulating rhythm in the strings as harmonic basis (cf. Ex.271).

In a forte or sfp chord, where one or two of the upper notes is held, either sustained or tremolando, the balance of tone must still be maintained, as in the following example:

[Listen]

Wood-wind harmony.

Before entering upon this section of the work I would remind the reader of the general principles laid down in the beginning of the chapter.

Harmonic texture, composed of plain chords or ornamental designs, simple or contrapuntal in character, must possess a resonance equally distributed throughout.This may be obtained by the following means:

1.Instruments forming chords must be used continuously in the same way during a given passage, that is to say they must be doubled or not throughout, except when one of the harmonic parts is to be made prominent:

To be avoided:
	[Listen]

2.The normal order of register must be followed, except in the case of crossing or enclosure of parts, which will be discussed later on:

To be avoided:
	[Listen]

3.Corresponding or adjacent registers should be made to coincide except for certain colour effects:

To be avoided:		The second flute will sound too weak and the oboes too piercing.
	[Listen]

4.Concords (octaves, thirds and sixths) and not discords (fifths, fourths, seconds and sevenths), should be given to instruments of the same kind or colour, except when discords are to be emphasised.This rule should be specially observed in writing for the oboe with its penetrating quality of tone:

To be avoided:
	[Listen]

Four-part and three-part harmony.

Harmonic writing for the wood-wind may be considered from two points of view: a) instruments in pairs, 2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.; and b) instruments in three's, 3 Fl., 2 Ob., Eng.horn, 3 Cl., 2 Fag., C-fag.

A. In pairs. There are three ways of distribution: 1. Superposition or overlaying (strictly following the normal order of register), 2. Crossing, and 3. Enclosure of parts. The last two methods involve a certain disturbance of the natural order of register:

Overlaying. Crossing. Enclosure.

[Listen]

In choosing one of these three methods the following points must not be forgotten: a) the register of a particular isolated chord; the soft and weak register of an instrument should not be coupled with the powerful and piercing range of another:

Overlaying.	Crossing.	Enclosure.
Oboe too piercing.	Low notes of the flute too weak.	Bassoon too prominent.

[Listen]

b) In a succession of chords the general progression of parts must be considered; one tone quality should be devoted to the stationary and another to the moving parts:

[Listen]

When chords are in widely-divided four-part harmony notes may be allotted in pairs to two different tone qualities, adhering to the normal order of register:

Good:

etc.

[Listen]

Any other distribution will result unquestionably in a grievous lack of relationship between registers:

To be avoided:

etc.

[Listen]

If one tone quality is to be enclosed, it must be between two different timbres:

Good:		etc.
	[Listen]

It is possible to lend four distinct timbres to a chord in widely-divided four-part harmony, though such a chord will possess no uniformity in colour; but the higher the registers of the different instruments are placed, the less perceptible becomes the space which separates them:

Fairly good Better Still better

[Listen]

The use of four different timbres in close four-part harmony is to be avoided, as the respective registers will not correspond:

Bad Better Still slightly better

[Listen]